A CONFIABILIDADE HISTÓRICA DO QUARTO EVANGELHO À LUZ DA GEOGRAFIA E DA ARQUEOLOGIA
Palavras-chave:
Evangelho de João, Palestina, Topografia, Artefatos, Testemunha OcularResumo
O Evangelho de João é bastante peculiar quando comparado aos Evangelhos Sinóticos (Mateus, Marcos e Lucas), no sentido de apresentar cronologia, eventos e discursos distintos para o ministério de Jesus. Os diálogos apresentados são mais longos, e os milagres, embora em menor número, são mais surpreendentes. Embora essas diferenças fossem conhecidas desde a antiguidade, com a ascensão de abordagens críticas e racionalistas à Bíblia no século XIX, influenciadas por um viés antissobrenaturalista, o Evangelho de João foi tomado como uma criação literária não histórica, produzida no segundo século e com influências do pensamento gnóstico e helenístico. Esse artigo procura discutir uma série de dados históricos apresentados nesse Evangelho, à luz da geografia da Galileia e da Judeia do primeiro século e de diversas descobertas que foram feitas pela ciência da Arqueologia. Esses dados fortalecem o caso de que a obra foi produzida por uma testemunha ocular da vida de Jesus e que estava bem familiarizada com as características da Palestina no período anterior à destruição pelos romanos, no ano 70 d.C. Uma breve discussão também é apresentada acerca da autoria e da data de composição do Evangelho, bem como das limitações inerentes ao uso das evidências históricas para se defender a veracidade da fé cristã.
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Referências
ALBRIGHT, W. F. Recent Discoveries in Palestine and the Gospel of St John. In: DAVIES, W. D.; DAUBE, D. (Eds). The Background of the New Testament and its Eschatology. In Honor of Charles Harold Dodd. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1956. p. 153–171.
ALBRIGHT, W. F. The Archaelogy of Palestine. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Pelican Books, 1960.
ALLEN, C. The Human Christ: The Search for the Historical Jesus. Oxford: Lion, 1998.
ANDERSON, P. N. Aspects of Historicity in the Gospel of John: Implications for Investigations of Jesus and Archaeology. In: CHARLESWORTH, J. (Ed.) Jesus and Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2006. p. 587–618.
ANDERSON, P. N. Juan. El Evangelio Terrenal y la Arqueología. Arqueología e Historia, n. 18, p. 39–45, abr. 2018.
BARNETT, P. W. Is the New Testament Reliable? Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2003.
BAUCKHAM, R. Jesus e as Testemunhas Oculares. Os Evangelhos como testemunhos de testemunhas oculares. São Paulo: Paulus, 2011.
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY (BAS) STAFF. The Bethesda Pool, Site of One of Jesus’ Miracles. 2021a. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/jerusalem/the-bethesda-pool-site-of-one-of-jesus-miracles. Acesso em: 26 ago. 2021.
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY (BAS) STAFF. The Siloam Pool: Where Jesus Healed the Blind Man. 2021b. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/the-siloam-pool-where-jesus-healed-the-blind-man. Acesso em: 11 ago. 2021.
BLOMBERG, C. L. A Confiabilidade Histórica dos Evangelhos. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2019.
BLOMBERG, C. L. Questões Cruciais do Novo Testamento. Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 2010.
BROWN, R. E. The Problem of Historicity in John. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, v. 24, n. 1, p. 1–14, 1962.
BRUCE, F. F. Archaeological Confirmation of the New Testament. In: HENRY, C. F. H. (Ed.) Revelation and the Bible. Contemporary Evangelical Thought. London, England: The Tyndale Press, 1959. p. 319–331.
BRUCE, F. F. Merece Confiança o Novo Testamento? 3. ed. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2004.
BRUCE, F. F. The Gospel of John. Introduction, Exposition and Notes. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1983.
BURROWS, M. What Mean These Stones? The Significance of Archaeology for Biblical Studies. New York, New York: Meridian Books, 1956.
CALVINO, J. O Evangelho Segundo João. v. 1. Série Comentários Bíblicos João Calvino. São José dos Campos: Fiel, 2015.
CHARLESWORTH, J. H. Reinterpreting John. How the Dead Sea Scrolls have revolutionized our understanding of the Gospel of John. Bible Review, v. 9, n. 1, fev. 1993. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/9/1/14. Acesso em: 14 ago. 2021.
CHARLESWORTH, J. H. The Historical Jesus in the Fourth Gospel: A Paradigm Shift? Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, n. 8, p. 3–46, 2010.
ECHEGARAY, J. G. Arqueología y evangelios. Estella, Spain: Editorial Verbo Divino, 1994.
EDWARDS, W. D.; GABEL, W. J.; HOSMER, F. E. On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, v. 255, n. 11, p. 1455–1463, 1986.
FINEGAN, J. The Archeology of the New Testament. The Life of Jesus and the Beginning of the Early Church. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992.
FREE, J. P. Archaeology and Bible History. Wheaton, Illinois: Scripture Press, 1969.
FREE, J. P.; VOS, H. F. Archaeology and Bible History. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1992.
GEISLER, N.; TUREK, F. I Don’t Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway Books, 2004.
GRIFFITH-JONES, R. The Un-Gospel of John. Bible Review, v. 18, n. 1, fev. 2002. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/18/1/3. Acesso em: 13 ago. 2021.
HEWITT, J. W. The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion. Harvard Theological Review, v. 25, n. 1, p. 29–45, 1932.
KOESTER, C. R. Topography and Theology in the Gospel of John. In: BECK, A. B. et al. (Eds.) Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995. p. 436–448.
KÖSTENBERGER, A. J.; STOUT, S. O. “The Disciple Jesus Loved”: Witness, Author, Apostle — A Response to Richard Bauckham's Jesus and the Eyewitnesses. Bulletin for Biblical Research, v. 18, n. 2, p. 209–231, 2008.
LEA, T. D. The Reliability of History in John’s Gospel. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, v. 38, n. 3, p. 387–402, 1995.
MAUGH II, T. H. Biblical Pool Uncovered in Jerusalem. 2005. Disponível em: https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-aug-09-sci-siloam9-story.html. Acesso em: 11 ago. 2021.
MCDOWELL, J. Novas Evidências que Demandam um Veredito. Evidência I e II. São Paulo: Hagnos, 2013.
MCDOWELL, J.; WILSON, B. Ele Andou entre Nós. Evidências do Jesus Histórico. São Paulo: Editora Candeia, 1999.
MCRAY, J. Archaeology and the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1991.
MILLARD, A. Discoveries From Bible Times: Archaeological treasures throw light on the Bible. Oxford, England: Lion Publishing plc., 1999.
NGO, R. Where Did Jesus Turn Water into Wine? 2021. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-places/where-did-jesus-turn-water-into-wine. Acesso em: 20 ago. 2021.
OSTLING, R. N. Jesus Christ, Plain and Simple. A Trinity of new, scholarly books tries to strip away the traditional Gospel accounts of the man from Nazareth. Time, p. 32-33, 10 jan. 1994.
PAROSCHI, W. Archaeology and the Interpretation of John’s Gospel: A Review Essay. Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, v. 20, n. 1–2, p. 67–88, 2009.
PRICE, R. Arqueologia Bíblica: O que as descobertas da arqueologia revelam sobre as verdades bíblicas. Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 2013.
RATZON, E.; BEM-DOV, J. A Newly Reconstructed Calendrical Scroll from Qumran in Cryptic Script. Journal of Biblical Literature, v. 136, n., p. 905–936, 2017.
RICHELLE, M. A Bíblia e a Arqueologia. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2017.
ROBERTS, M. D. Can We Trust the Gospels? Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2007.
ROBINSON, J. A. T. Redating the New Testament. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000.
ROBINSON, J. A. T. Twelve New Testament Studies. Studies in Biblical Theology. Naperville, Illinois: Allenson, 1962.
SAUTER, M. The Temple on Mount Gerizim — In the Bible and Archaeology. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/the-temple-on-mount-gerizim-in-the-bible-and-archaeology. Acesso em: 05 set. 2021.
SHANKS, H. How Historical is the Gospel of John? Biblical Archaeology Review, v. 31, n. 5, set.-out. 2005. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/31/5/4. Acesso em: 14 ago. 2021.
SILVA, R. P. Escavando a Verdade: A arqueologia e as incríveis histórias da Bíblia. Tatuí: Casa Publicadora Brasileira, 2007.
SMITH, D. M. John — Historian or Theologian? Bible Review, v. 20, n. 5, out. 2004. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/20/5/7. Acesso em: 17 ago. 2021.
STROBEL, L. The Case for Christ: A Journalist’s Personal Investigation of Evidence for Jesus. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1998.
UNGER, M. F. Manual Bíblico Unger. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2011.
UNGER, M. F. The Role of Archaeology in the Study of the New Testament. Bibliotheca Sacra, v. 116, n. 462, p. 145–155, abr.–jun. 1959.
VON WAHLDE, U. C. Archaeology and John’s Gospel. In: CHARLESWORTH, J. (Ed.) Jesus and Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2006. p. 523–586.
VON WAHLDE, U. C. The Gospel of John and Archaeology. In: LIEU, J. M.; DE BOER, M. C. (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Johannine Studies. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 101–120. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739982.013.6
WALKER, P. In the Steps of Jesus: An Illustrated Guide to the Places of the Holy Land. Oxford: Lion, 2006.
WENHAM, D. A Historical View of John’s Gospel. Themelios, v. 23, n. 2, p. 5–21, 1998.
ZELYCK, L. Irenaeus and the Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. In: PORTER, S. E.; ONG, H. T. The Origins of John’s Gospel. Series: Johannine Studies, Volume: 2. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2016. p. 239–258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004303164_012
ALBRIGHT, W. F. The Archaelogy of Palestine. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Pelican Books, 1960.
ALLEN, C. The Human Christ: The Search for the Historical Jesus. Oxford: Lion, 1998.
ANDERSON, P. N. Aspects of Historicity in the Gospel of John: Implications for Investigations of Jesus and Archaeology. In: CHARLESWORTH, J. (Ed.) Jesus and Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2006. p. 587–618.
ANDERSON, P. N. Juan. El Evangelio Terrenal y la Arqueología. Arqueología e Historia, n. 18, p. 39–45, abr. 2018.
BARNETT, P. W. Is the New Testament Reliable? Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2003.
BAUCKHAM, R. Jesus e as Testemunhas Oculares. Os Evangelhos como testemunhos de testemunhas oculares. São Paulo: Paulus, 2011.
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY (BAS) STAFF. The Bethesda Pool, Site of One of Jesus’ Miracles. 2021a. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/jerusalem/the-bethesda-pool-site-of-one-of-jesus-miracles. Acesso em: 26 ago. 2021.
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY (BAS) STAFF. The Siloam Pool: Where Jesus Healed the Blind Man. 2021b. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/the-siloam-pool-where-jesus-healed-the-blind-man. Acesso em: 11 ago. 2021.
BLOMBERG, C. L. A Confiabilidade Histórica dos Evangelhos. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2019.
BLOMBERG, C. L. Questões Cruciais do Novo Testamento. Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 2010.
BROWN, R. E. The Problem of Historicity in John. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, v. 24, n. 1, p. 1–14, 1962.
BRUCE, F. F. Archaeological Confirmation of the New Testament. In: HENRY, C. F. H. (Ed.) Revelation and the Bible. Contemporary Evangelical Thought. London, England: The Tyndale Press, 1959. p. 319–331.
BRUCE, F. F. Merece Confiança o Novo Testamento? 3. ed. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2004.
BRUCE, F. F. The Gospel of John. Introduction, Exposition and Notes. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1983.
BURROWS, M. What Mean These Stones? The Significance of Archaeology for Biblical Studies. New York, New York: Meridian Books, 1956.
CALVINO, J. O Evangelho Segundo João. v. 1. Série Comentários Bíblicos João Calvino. São José dos Campos: Fiel, 2015.
CHARLESWORTH, J. H. Reinterpreting John. How the Dead Sea Scrolls have revolutionized our understanding of the Gospel of John. Bible Review, v. 9, n. 1, fev. 1993. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/9/1/14. Acesso em: 14 ago. 2021.
CHARLESWORTH, J. H. The Historical Jesus in the Fourth Gospel: A Paradigm Shift? Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus, n. 8, p. 3–46, 2010.
ECHEGARAY, J. G. Arqueología y evangelios. Estella, Spain: Editorial Verbo Divino, 1994.
EDWARDS, W. D.; GABEL, W. J.; HOSMER, F. E. On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, v. 255, n. 11, p. 1455–1463, 1986.
FINEGAN, J. The Archeology of the New Testament. The Life of Jesus and the Beginning of the Early Church. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992.
FREE, J. P. Archaeology and Bible History. Wheaton, Illinois: Scripture Press, 1969.
FREE, J. P.; VOS, H. F. Archaeology and Bible History. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1992.
GEISLER, N.; TUREK, F. I Don’t Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway Books, 2004.
GRIFFITH-JONES, R. The Un-Gospel of John. Bible Review, v. 18, n. 1, fev. 2002. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/18/1/3. Acesso em: 13 ago. 2021.
HEWITT, J. W. The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion. Harvard Theological Review, v. 25, n. 1, p. 29–45, 1932.
KOESTER, C. R. Topography and Theology in the Gospel of John. In: BECK, A. B. et al. (Eds.) Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995. p. 436–448.
KÖSTENBERGER, A. J.; STOUT, S. O. “The Disciple Jesus Loved”: Witness, Author, Apostle — A Response to Richard Bauckham's Jesus and the Eyewitnesses. Bulletin for Biblical Research, v. 18, n. 2, p. 209–231, 2008.
LEA, T. D. The Reliability of History in John’s Gospel. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, v. 38, n. 3, p. 387–402, 1995.
MAUGH II, T. H. Biblical Pool Uncovered in Jerusalem. 2005. Disponível em: https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-aug-09-sci-siloam9-story.html. Acesso em: 11 ago. 2021.
MCDOWELL, J. Novas Evidências que Demandam um Veredito. Evidência I e II. São Paulo: Hagnos, 2013.
MCDOWELL, J.; WILSON, B. Ele Andou entre Nós. Evidências do Jesus Histórico. São Paulo: Editora Candeia, 1999.
MCRAY, J. Archaeology and the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1991.
MILLARD, A. Discoveries From Bible Times: Archaeological treasures throw light on the Bible. Oxford, England: Lion Publishing plc., 1999.
NGO, R. Where Did Jesus Turn Water into Wine? 2021. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-places/where-did-jesus-turn-water-into-wine. Acesso em: 20 ago. 2021.
OSTLING, R. N. Jesus Christ, Plain and Simple. A Trinity of new, scholarly books tries to strip away the traditional Gospel accounts of the man from Nazareth. Time, p. 32-33, 10 jan. 1994.
PAROSCHI, W. Archaeology and the Interpretation of John’s Gospel: A Review Essay. Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, v. 20, n. 1–2, p. 67–88, 2009.
PRICE, R. Arqueologia Bíblica: O que as descobertas da arqueologia revelam sobre as verdades bíblicas. Rio de Janeiro: CPAD, 2013.
RATZON, E.; BEM-DOV, J. A Newly Reconstructed Calendrical Scroll from Qumran in Cryptic Script. Journal of Biblical Literature, v. 136, n., p. 905–936, 2017.
RICHELLE, M. A Bíblia e a Arqueologia. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2017.
ROBERTS, M. D. Can We Trust the Gospels? Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2007.
ROBINSON, J. A. T. Redating the New Testament. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000.
ROBINSON, J. A. T. Twelve New Testament Studies. Studies in Biblical Theology. Naperville, Illinois: Allenson, 1962.
SAUTER, M. The Temple on Mount Gerizim — In the Bible and Archaeology. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/the-temple-on-mount-gerizim-in-the-bible-and-archaeology. Acesso em: 05 set. 2021.
SHANKS, H. How Historical is the Gospel of John? Biblical Archaeology Review, v. 31, n. 5, set.-out. 2005. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/31/5/4. Acesso em: 14 ago. 2021.
SILVA, R. P. Escavando a Verdade: A arqueologia e as incríveis histórias da Bíblia. Tatuí: Casa Publicadora Brasileira, 2007.
SMITH, D. M. John — Historian or Theologian? Bible Review, v. 20, n. 5, out. 2004. Disponível em: https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/20/5/7. Acesso em: 17 ago. 2021.
STROBEL, L. The Case for Christ: A Journalist’s Personal Investigation of Evidence for Jesus. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1998.
UNGER, M. F. Manual Bíblico Unger. São Paulo: Vida Nova, 2011.
UNGER, M. F. The Role of Archaeology in the Study of the New Testament. Bibliotheca Sacra, v. 116, n. 462, p. 145–155, abr.–jun. 1959.
VON WAHLDE, U. C. Archaeology and John’s Gospel. In: CHARLESWORTH, J. (Ed.) Jesus and Archaeology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2006. p. 523–586.
VON WAHLDE, U. C. The Gospel of John and Archaeology. In: LIEU, J. M.; DE BOER, M. C. (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Johannine Studies. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 101–120. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739982.013.6
WALKER, P. In the Steps of Jesus: An Illustrated Guide to the Places of the Holy Land. Oxford: Lion, 2006.
WENHAM, D. A Historical View of John’s Gospel. Themelios, v. 23, n. 2, p. 5–21, 1998.
ZELYCK, L. Irenaeus and the Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. In: PORTER, S. E.; ONG, H. T. The Origins of John’s Gospel. Series: Johannine Studies, Volume: 2. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2016. p. 239–258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004303164_012
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2023-03-07
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Lovato, F. L. (2023). A CONFIABILIDADE HISTÓRICA DO QUARTO EVANGELHO À LUZ DA GEOGRAFIA E DA ARQUEOLOGIA. VIA TEOLÓGICA, 23(46), 141–179. Recuperado de https://periodicos.fabapar.com.br/index.php/vt/article/view/218
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Recebido: 2021-11-02
Publicado: 2023-03-07
Publicado: 2023-03-07
